TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION

II. HISTORY OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES

• Ancient Olympic Games
• Pierre de Coubertin and the Birth of the Modern Olympic Movement
• The Olympiads
• The First Olympic Games of the Modern Era, Athens 1896

III. THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT

• Olympism
• The International Olympic Committee
• National Olympic Committees, International Federations and National Governing Bodies
• The United States Olympic Committee
• Host Olympic Cities and Local Organizing Committees

IV. SYMBOLS OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES

• The Olympic Rings
• The Olympic Flame
• Olympic Medals
• Olympic Mascots

V. ATHLETES AND THE OLYMPIC GAMES

• Who May Enter the Olympic Games?
• How Are Athletes Selected for an Olympic Team?
• Fair Play and the Athlete's Oath

VI. ISSUES OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES

• Amateurism
• Politics
• Television
• Doping
• Commercialism
• Women and the Olympic Games

VII. THE 1998 NAGANO OLYMPIC WINTER GAMES

VIII. PAST OLYMPIC GAMES IN THE UNITED STATES

• St. Louis 1904
• Lake Placid 1932
• Los Angeles 1932
• Squaw Valley 1960
• Lake Placid 1980
• Los Angeles 1984
• Atlanta 1996

IX. TOMORROW'S OLYMPIC GAMES

• 2000 Sydney Olympic Games
• 2002 Salt Lake City Olympic Winter Games
• 2004 Athens Games

X. OLYMPIC GAMES BIBLIOGRAPHY

Back to Olympic Information Center

I. INTRODUCTION

Every four years, athletes from around the world come together to celebrate the Olympic Games. These Games are the world's great festivals of athletic competition and international friendship. Athletes from all parts of the globe, and from all walks of life, gather in one place to realize their dreams and experience the glory of Olympic competition.

The Sports Library of the Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles, legacy of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games, has created this Olympic Games Primer for teachers, students, and interested individuals who want to learn and teach others about the world's great quadrennial celebration of sport and friendship: the Olympic Games.

The Sports Library welcomes your questions or comments. We especially encourage any teachers with questions or comments to contact us. If you would like more information on the Olympic Games, or have related sports questions, please feel free to call us at (323) 730-4646. You can e-mail us at library@aafla.org. Our fax number is (323) 730-9637.

Our home on the World Wide Web is located at www.aafla.org. The AAF is located at 2141 West Adams Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90018. The hours of the Sports Library are 10 a.m. - 5 p.m., on Monday through Friday, Wednesdays to 7:30 p.m. The library is open the first and last Saturdays of each month from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m.

Note: You can navigate this Olympic Primer in two ways. One, simply scroll through the document by using your mouse and scroll bar, or by using your down arrow key. The second, and easier way, is to click on the topics in the Table of Contents. These topic links will take you to the subjects in which you are interested.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

II. HISTORY OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES

The ancient Olympic Games were the great Greek religious, athletic, and cultural festivals that inspired the creation of the modern Olympic Games. The earliest documentation of the ancient Games traces the efforts of King Iphitos of Elis, around 824 BC, to establish a "sacred truce" through the conduct of Games "dear to the gods." From 776 B.C., these Games took place every four years.

The ancient Games were sacred events. Athletes from all Greek city-states joined the festivals at Olympia. Like the modern Games, the ancient Games were marked by solemn opening and closing ceremonies. The "sacred truce" beginning the first known Games read, "May the world be delivered from crime and killing and freed from the clash of arms." The intent was for warring city-states to lay down their arms for the period of the Games so that athletes could compete in peace.

The program of competitive events in the ancient Games evolved over time. Among the sports contested were the foot race, wrestling, boxing, pankration, the pentathlon, and chariot races. The first recorded winner was the runner Koroibos.

Only men were permitted to take part in the Olympic Games. Women were forbidden to compete or be spectators at the ancient Olympic Games under penalty of death. The only female allowed in Olympia was the high priestess of the goddess Demeter.

Women in ancient Greece, did, however, participate in festivals of their own. Exclusively female Games, held in honor of the goddess Hera, were held at regular intervals.

The ancient Olympic Games are known to have existed for 12 centuries. The symbolic power of the Games lived on after their demise in 394 AD, and came to life again as the modern Olympic Games.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

Pierre de Fredy, the Baron de Coubertin, was the founder of the modern Olympic Movement.

Pierre de Coubertin was born in 1863 to a French aristocrat family. He was an avid sportsman as a young man with rowning being one of his favorites. Influenced by the events of the late 19th century and his education, Coubertin developed a passionate belief that sport possessed the power to benefit humankind and encourage peace among the nations of the world.

Coubertin drew his inspiration from the ancient Olympic Games. After visits to England and the United States, Coubertin formulated a plan to revive the Games. His vision was realized, in June 1894, when delegates meeting in Paris voted to hold modern Olympic Games at Athens in 1896.

Coubertin was the driving force behind the fledgling Olympic Movement. He became president of the International Olympic Committee in 1896 and held that post for 29 years. Over that time, Coubertin committed his life and his fortune to the establishment and growth of the modern Olympic Games. He died in Geneva, Switzerland in 1937.

Though Coubertin never approved of women competing in the Olympic Games, he fought ferociously for the ideals of Olympism. His vision and determination created a movement that has, like no other, united the athletes and nations of the world in peaceful celebration and competition.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

An Olympiad is a period of four years, the beginning of which is marked by the celebration of the Olympic Games. The first modern Olympiad was celebrated by the 1896 Athens Games. Each Olympiad is designated by Roman numerals. The 1996 Atlanta Games, for example, were The Games of the XXVI Olympiad. The 2000 Sydney Games will be The Games of the XXVII Olympiad.

The year in which the Olympic Games are to be held cannot be changed. If the Games are canceled for any reason, the number of the Olympiad remains. Although World War I preempted the 1916 Games, the period from 1912 to 1916 remains the VI Olympiad of the modern era.

The term Olympiad does not apply to the Olympic Winter Games. Only the so-called "summer" Games are Games of the Olympiad. The Winter Games are referred to only by numeral. Thus, the 1994 Lillehammer Games were the XVII Olympic Winter Games; the 1998 Nagano Games were the XVIII Olympic Winter Games.

The term Olympic actually is an adjective, not a noun. Properly speaking, an athlete competes in the Olympic Games, not the Olympics. The phrases Summer and Winter Olympics are commonly used, but they are technically incorrect references to the Games of the Olympiad and the Olympic Winter Games.

The following is a list of the Olympiads of the modern era with the Games of the Olympiads and a list of the Olympic Winter Games.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

The Games of the Olympiads and The Cities of the Olympic Games

The Olympic Winter Games

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

The First Olympic Games of the Modern Era, Athens 1896

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

III. THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT

Modern Olympism, is described by the Olympic Charter as a philosophy "exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy found in effort, the educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles." "The goal of Olympism is to place everywhere sport at the service of the harmonious development of man(kind), with a view to encouraging the establishment of a peaceful society concerned with the preservation of human dignity."

"The goal of the Olympic Movement is to contribute to building a peaceful and better world by educating youth through sport practised without discrimination of any kind and in the Olympic spirit, which requires mutual understanding with a spirit of friendship, solidarity and fair play."

The Olympic Movement, "encompasses organizations, athletes, and other persons who agree to be guided by the Olympic Charter." The Olympic Movement includes the International Olympic Committee, the International Federations, the National Olympic Committees, the Organizing Committees of the Olympic Games, the national associations, clubs, and persons belonging to them, particularly the athletes." The Olympic Movement also "includes other organizations and institutions as recognized by the IOC."

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

The International Olympic Committee is the supreme authority of the Olympic Movement. Based in Lausanne, Switzerland, the IOC is a non-governmental and non-commercial organization, whose mission is to encourage the growth of sport within the Olympic ideal, including ensuring the regular celebration of the Olympic Games.

The IOC comprises over 100 members who volunteer their services on behalf of the Olympic Movement. Membership is limited to resident citizens of countries having National Olympic Committees. They must speak either French or English. New members are elected by the existing membership. Individual members represent the IOC in their home countries. They are not delegates of a country to the IOC. Individual members may not be under the authority of any government, organization, or individual that might direct or compromise the independence of their votes.

The International Olympic Committee was formed on June 23, 1894, in Paris, France at the instigation of the founder of the modern Olympic Movement, Baron Pierre de Coubertin. The IOC initially consisted of 14 members, with Demetrius Vikelas as its president. Coubertin assumed the presidency in 1896, and led the Olympic Movement until 1925. As of this writing there have been seven IOC presidents. Juan Antonio Samaranch of Spain was elected to the post in 1980. One American, the late Avery Brundage, served as IOC president from 1952-1972.

The IOC has three members from the United States: Anita L. DeFrantz, and James Easton, both of Los Angeles, CA, and Robert Ctvrtlik, of Encinitas, CA. In September 1997, DeFrantz became the first woman elected as an IOC vice-president. Winner of a bronze medal in rowing at the 1976 Montreal Games, she is president of the Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles. Easton is chairman of Easton Aluminum, Inc., and also is president of the International Archery Federation.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

National Olympic Committees (NOCs) are organizations which lead the Olympic Movement within each country. They promote Olympism and develop sport nationally. Each NOC represents its country at the Olympic Games and has the power to select its own national team to participate in the Games. NOCs may associate themselves with governmental bodies, but may not act in contradiction to the Olympic Charter. All National Olympic Committees must be officially recognized by the IOC.

NOCs are composed of IOC members in their countries, national Olympic sports governing bodies (a.k.a., national federations) and a number of elected Olympic athletes. NOCs may also include members of affiliated sports and community organizations as well as select individuals. Each NOC must include at least five national governing bodies in order to be recognized by the IOC.

International Federations (IFs) are non-governmental organizations responsible for the international administration of one or more sports. The IFs are responsible for developing their sports worldwide, enforcing the rules of their sports, establishing eligibility criteria, hosting international competitions, conducting their sports at the Olympic Games, and contributing to the goals of the Olympic Movement. One example of an IF is the International Federation of Basketball (FIBA). FIBA sets the rules governing international basketball competition. For example, it was FIBA that determined that professional basketball players were eligible to play in the Olympic Games.

National Governing Bodies (NGBs), also called National Federations, are the organizations that govern a sport within in each country. They are charged with selecting teams for international competition (including the Olympic Games), conducting national championships, and developing their sports within their countries. An NGB is responsible for sanctioning and conducting competitions. It is the sole national representative to a sport's International Federation and, as such, is the only organization that may organize a "national championship" to be recognized by the IF. The sport of gymnastics, for example, is governed in the United States by the organization, USA Gymnastics.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

The United States Olympic Committee (USOC) is the custodian of the Olympic Movement and the coordinating body for Olympic sports in the United States. Its primary mission is to train, enter, and underwrite expenses for United States athletes at the Olympic Games. The USOC also determines which U.S. city may present a bid to host an Olympic Games.

The USOC dates to 1894 when a small informal group headed by James E. Sullivan and William Sloane organized to enter U.S. athletes in the first modern Olympic Games at Athens in 1896. The committee existed in various forms for decades, taking the name United States Olympic Committee in 1961. In 1978, Congress passed the Amateur Sports Act granting the USOC exclusive rights to organize and govern American teams for the Olympic Games. The USOC has its headquarters in Colorado Springs, Colorado.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

The right to host an Olympic Games is awarded to a city chosen by the members of the IOC. Only cities, not countries, may host an Olympic Games. In other words, the 2000 Sydney Games will be hosted by the city of Sydney, Australia, not by the country of Australia.

All sports on the Olympic Program must be held within the approximate local area of the city bidding for the Games. The Olympic bid committee of the candidate city first must receive support from its National Olympic Committee (NOC) before the IOC will consider its bid. Only one city from a country is allowed to bid for the Games. After a process involving detailed evaluation, the IOC votes to select a host city seven years before the Games are held.

The growth of the Olympic Games has made the bidding process complicated and extremely competitive. Local committees put tremendous effort and expense into their bids. The size of the Games, as well as the cost, requires extensively detailed planning and preparation for the bids alone.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

IV. SYMBOLS OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES

The Olympic rings are the official symbol of the Olympic movement. There are five interlacing rings of the colors blue, yellow, black, green, and red. The rings are set upon a white background.

Baron Pierre de Coubertin designed the Olympic emblem in 1913. In his words, "These five rings represent the five parts of the world won over to Olympism. . . This is a real international emblem." The Olympic rings represent the union of the five continents and the meeting of athletes throughout the world at the Olympic Games. However, contrary to a popular misconception, the colors themselves do not represent any single continent. The colors were chosen because at least one of these colors is found in the flag of every nation.

The original Olympic flag was made at the "Bon Marché " store in Paris. The flag is three meters long and two meters wide. It first flew over an Olympic stadium at the 1920 Antwerp Games. The original flag also carried the Olympic motto, "Citius, Altius, Fortius," meaning "Faster, Higher, Stronger."

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

The most revered and visible symbol of the Olympic Games competition is the Olympic Flame.

During the ancient Games, in Olympia, a sacred flame burned continually on the altar of the goddess, Hera.

In the modern era, the Olympic Flame first appeared at the 1928 Amsterdam Games. The idea for the flame first had been suggested by Theodore Lewald, a member of the International Olympic Committee, who later became one of the chief organizers of the 1936 Berlin Games.

The tradition of the Olympic Torch Relay, which culminates in the lighting of the Olympic cauldron at the Opening Ceremony of each Games, dates to the 1936 Berlin Games. Carl Diem, the noted Olympic historian and head of the organizing committee, created the first torch relay to symbolize the link between the ancient and modern Olympic Games. The flame was lit in a ceremony at Olympia, Greece. From there, 3,000 runners carried the torch through seven countries to Berlin. The relay was timed so that the flame arrived at the stadium at the precise moment required. Ever since, the lighting of the Olympic cauldron has become the most hallowed moment of the Olympic Games.

The first torch relay of the Olympic Winter Games was organized for the 1952 Oslo Games. The flame was kindled at the home where legendary Norwegian skier Sondre Nordheim was born. Ninety-four skiers carried the flame to the Opening Ceremony in Oslo's Bislett Stadium. At the 1994 Lillehammer Games, ski-jumper Stein Gruben literally leaped into the Olympic arena with the flame.

The youngest person ever to light the Olympic flame was Robin Perry, age 12, who lit the flame at the 1988 Calgary Olympic Winter Games.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

Olympic medals are awarded to those individuals or teams placing first, second, and third in each event. The first place winner is bestowed a gold-plated medal of silver, which is commonly referred to as the "gold medal." Second and third places receive medals of silver and bronze. The silver used in the first and second place medals must be at least 92.5% pure. The "gold" medals must be gilded with at least six grams of pure gold. Medals also carry the name of the sport contested. All competitors receive a diploma and commemorative medals for their participation in the Olympic Games.

The front sides of the medals awarded at the Games of the Olympiads feature an image of a Hellenic goddess holding a laurel wreath with the Athens Colosseum in the background. Since 1972, local Olympic organizing committees have been allowed to create a design for the back sides of the medals.

The medals given at the Olympic Winter Games, by tradition, differ from the traditional medals given at the Summer Games. Each Organizing Committee designs its own medals that must be approved by the IOC. The 1998 Nagano Games medals, for example, combined traditional Japanese arts of lacquering, cloisonne and engraving to create medals incorporating the concept of "Games from the Heart --Together With Love." The medals were desigend to be an expression of Japan and of Nagano. The emblem of the Games lies at the center of the medals.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

The Olympic mascots are characters that stand as a symbol of the Olympic Games for children of all ages.

The official mascots of the 1998 Nagano Games were the Snowlets, Sukki, Nokki, Lekki and Tsukki. The Snowlets represent the owls found in the forests of Nagano and their embodiment as "the wisdom of the woods." The name Snowlets also suggests the snow of the winter and the Olympic Winter Games. The four Snowlets, representing the four-year cycle of the Games, each have their own special personality.

Sukki knows the language of fire and is kind and passionate. Nokki, who speaks the language of the wind, is curious, friendly and, sometimes, mischievous. Lekki speaks the language of the warm earth and is calm and attentive. Tsukki who understands the language of water is the romantic one with a love of music, singing and dancing.

Put the first syllable of each name together and what do you get? Snowlets!

Maybe you'd like to meet a few other Olympic Mascots.

Summer Games

• 1972 Munich, Waldi the Dachshund
• 1976 Montreal , Amik, the Beaver
• 1980 Moscow, Misha the Bear
• 1984 Los Angeles, Sam the Eagle
• 1988 Seoul, Hodori, a tiger cub
• 1992 Barcelona, Cobi, a mountain sheep dog with human shape
• 1996 Atlanta, Izzy, a teenage Whatizit cartoon character

Winter Games

• 1968 Grenoble, Schuss
• 1976 Innsbruck, Tyrolean Snowman
• 1980 Lake Placid, Roni the Racoon
• 1984 Sarajevo, Vucko the Wolf
• 1988 Calgary, Hidy and Howdy the Welcome Bears
• 1992 Albertville, Magique, animated Savoyard Star
• 1994 Lillehammer, Haakon and Kristin, Norwegian child folk characters
• 1998 Nagano, The Snowlets, baby owls

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

V. ATHLETES AND THE OLYMPIC GAMES

The Olympic Charter

"The goal of the Olympic Movement is to contribute to building a peaceful and better world by educating youth through sport practised without discrimination of any kind . . ."

These words from the Olympic Charter state the Olympic Movement's belief that athletic talent, and not race, gender, religious belief or politics, should determine whether athletes may participate in the Olympic Games. The Olympic Charter stipulates only that athletes must be citizens of the nations they represent.

Other eligibility criteria are the responsibility of the international and national sport federations and national Olympic committees. Each sport federation determines age limits and the eligibility of professional athletes. Some sports admit professionals; others do not. For example, professional basketball players are allowed to play in the Olympic Games. Professional baseball players, however, are not.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

All athletes in the Olympic Games participate as representatives of their countries. Some athletes who hold dual nationality compete for the country other than the one in which they live. Most United States Olympic team members are selected through national Olympic qualification competitions. In the sport of track and field, for example, the top three finishers in each event at the USA Track and Field Olympic Trials are selected to the Olympic team. In some other sports, national teams are chosen by national federation officials on the basis of current fitness, past performance, and future potential. Each sport determines how its athletes will be selected for the Olympic Games.

Making an Olympic team has been a dream for generations of athletes worldwide. Making an Olympic team is very difficult and usually requires years of hard work, persistence and good fortune. It is very rare for a novice athlete to be selected to an Olympic team. Most Olympic team members have been training in their sports for nearly a decade or more before gaining the honor of participating in the Olympic Games.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

The Olympic Movement aims to promote sport in the spirit of fair play. Cheating, such as using performance-enhancing drugs, and violence are punishable by expulsion from the Olympic Games and the loss of any medals or diplomas. At the Opening Ceremony of each Olympic Games, one athlete chosen to represent all competitors takes the following oath:

"In the name of all the competitors I promise that we shall take part in these Olympic Games, respecting and abiding by the rules which govern them, in the true spirit of sportsmanship, for the glory of sport and the honour of our teams."

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

VI. ISSUES OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES

When Baron de Coubertin founded the modern Olympic Games, he envisioned contests in which young men competed only for the love of sport without the promise of financial reward. This vision was the basis for the concept of amateurism that governed Olympic eligibility for nearly 100 years.

While Coubertin's belief in amateurism derived from his devotion to the ideals of Olympism, it was a view rooted in the social milieu of the late 19th century, a time when only men of wealth could endure the expenses that accompanied a life of sport. In fact, early definitions of amateurism were based on distinctions of social class. Persons from lower economic classes were defined as non-amateurs.

But as sports became increasingly popular, people from a wider range of social classes participated and opportunities for profit appeared. These changes challenged the International Olympic Committee's strict definition of amateur status as the basis for Olympic eligibility. The most notable case of an athlete losing Olympic eligibility for violating the amateur code is that of 1912 gold medalist Jim Thorpe of the United States. Thorpe was stripped of his Olympic medals because he had earned a small amount of money playing semi-professional baseball two years before the 1912 Stockholm Games. Thorpe's medals were returned to him posthumously by the IOC in 1982.

Avery Brundage, president of the International Olympic Committee from 1952-1972, was a fervent defender of amateurism. Brundage maintained that the high ideals of Olympism would be destroyed if athletes were allowed to profit from sport. He believed that commercialism would destroy higher motivations of fair play and moral development. One consequence of Brundage's policy, however, was that dishonesty and secret payments plagued the Olympic Games during his tenure.

After Brundage retired as IOC president, the IOC re-evaluated its position on amateurism. Realizing that its rules discriminated against athletes without wealth and that, in some countries, state-supported training made athletes de facto professionals, the IOC gradually eliminated "amateur" status as a condition for Olympic eligibility. The word amateur was finally removed from the Olympic Charter during the 1970s. The international federations governing individual Olympic sports were given responsibility for determining Olympic eligibility following the 1981 IOC Congress and Session at Baden-Baden, Germany. Since that time, an increasing number of federations have modified their rules to allow professionals to compete in the Games.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

The first century of the modern Olympic Games paralleled the development of mass communications technology. Television has enabled the Olympic Games to become a true global event. The 1996 Atlanta Games were broadcast to a world-wide audience of 2.3 billion people resulting in a cumulative broadcast audience of 19.6 billion.

The 1936 Berlin Games were the first sports competitions televised live. More than two dozen viewing halls were built throughout Berlin for people to watch the Games. Although the picture quality of these early broadcasts was poor, television became a vital part of the Olympic Games.

The first international broadcasts of Olympic competition came at the 1956 Cortina Winter Games. Viewers in eight European countries watched the Games.

As television grew during the 1950s, the International Olympic Committee realized that the sale of broadcast rights could provide income to subsidize the expenses of the Games and the activities of the IOC. After much negotiation, rights to the 1960 Squaw Valley Games were sold to several companies. The European Broadcasting Union paid $660,000 (U.S.) for broadcast rights. Since then, television rights fees and coverage have escalated astronomically. The National Broadcasting Company (NBC), an American network, paid $456,000,000 for the rights to broadcast the 1996 Atlanta Games and a staggering $3.5 billion for the rights to broadcast the fives Games from 2000 through 20008.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

"Yes, doping equals death. Physiological death . . . And then death of the spirit and intellect by the acceptance of cheating by disguising one's potential, in recognizing one's inadequacy or unwillingness to be satisfied with oneself or transcend one's limits. And finally moral death, by placing oneself de facto outside the rule of conduct demanded by any human society." - IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch

Doping is the "administration or use of drugs or banned methods" for the purpose of artificially improving athletic performance. It is a major problems facing sport and the Olympic Games. Simply, doping is cheating.

Doping has existed in one form or another since the ancient Olympic Games. Emollients and special diets were among the earliest types of doping. In the modern era, doping primarily has taken the form of drug use. The most notorious case of doping occurred during the 1988 Seoul Games when Canada's 100-meter gold medalist Ben Johnson was found to have taken anabolic steroids.

Anabolic steroids, synthetic male hormones, are probably the most widely abused drug in elite sport. Anabolic steroids increase strength, but also can lead to severe physical problems.

In some instances, entire national teams have been tainted by doping. After the disintegration of the East German (GDR) government in 1989 it was discovered that a state-sponsored plan, Plan 14.25, had ordered the systematic doping of East German athletes during the 1970s and 1980s. Such widespread doping has cast a pall over the Olympic medals won by East German athletes during this period and still remains a controversial issue within German sport.

The International Olympic Committee is adamantly opposed to doping, and has worked to eliminate the use of illegal methods through the vigorous activities of the IOC Medical Commission and the IOC Athletes' Commission.

At each Olympic Games, hundreds of athletes undergo drug testing for performance-enhancing substances. Usually, the top four placers in each event plus a number of other randomly-selected athletes are required to provide post-competition urine samples for testing. Athletes found guilty of doping forfeit any Olympic medals or diplomas they have won.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

Women have fought for just representation in the Olympic Games since the beginning of the modern Olympic Movement. Women were not allowed to compete in the first Olympic Games at Athens in 1896. And although a number of women did compete in the 1904 St. Louis and 1908 London Games, the International Olympic Committee did not formally admit women to the Games until 1912 at Stockholm.

The history of women in the Olympic Games has been that of a struggle for full participation and of changing popular perceptions of female athletes. To this day, women still account for only one-third of all Olympic competitors. It was only in 1981 that Pirjo Haggman of Finland and Flor Isava-Fonseca of Venezuela were elected as the first women members of the IOC.  Anita DeFrantz, of Los Angeles, is the only U.S. woman ever to serve on the IOC. In September 1997 she became the first woman elected as an IOC vice-president.

Women's issues continue to confront the Olympic Movement. Most notable is the dearth of women holding leadership positions in Olympic sports organizations. Attempting to confront the problem, the IOC passed a resolution in 1996 requiring that women make up 10% of "the decision-making structures" of all NOCs by the year 2000, and 20% by the year 2005.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

Although the goal of the Olympic Games is to bring together the athletes of the world in peaceful competition, the Games often have been affected by political tensions.

The most controversial Games in modern Olympic history were the 1936 Berlin Games. German Chancellor Adolph Hitler used the Games as propaganda for Nazi ideology. Prior to the Games, several nations called for a boycott in protest of the anti-Semitic policies enacted by Hitler's National Socialist Government. The tragedy of World War II still shrouds the memory of the Berlin Games.

Politics continued to cloud the Games in later years. The 1950s witnessed the emergence of Cold War tensions. At the 1956 Melbourne Games, nearly 40 % of the Hungarian Olympic contingent defected rather than return home to a country that had been recently invaded by armed forces from the Soviet Union. During the 1960s, human rights issues confronted the Olympic Movement. In an unprecedented move, the International Olympic Committee voted to expel the Republic of South Africa from the Games, in 1964, for its racist apartheid policies. At the 1968 Mexico City Games, African-American athletes visibly protested the discrimination against blacks in the United States. The image of American sprinters Tommie Smith and John Carlos standing on the victory stand with clenched fists in black gloves remains etched in Olympic memory.

International political tensions led to the Olympic Games greatest tragedy. Twelve Israeli athletes and coaches were murdered by Palestinian terrorists at the 1972 Munich Games.

Although individual countries have declined participation in the Games as a means of political protest throughout the history of the Modern Games, the 1976 Montreal Games introduced what some have called the "age of the Olympic boycott." Seventeen African and Arab nations boycotted the Montreal Games protesting New Zealand's violation of the international sports ban of South Africa. Four years later, a number of nations, led by the United States, boycotted the 1980 Moscow Games in protest of the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan. Citing concern for the security of its athletes, the U.S.S.R. organized an Eastern Bloc boycott of the 1984 Los Angeles Games.

During the 1990s, the Olympic Movement has concerned itself with gender issues. The IOC has called for the greater involvement of women in the governing structures of sport.

The IOC's most assertive political voice, however, has sounded in the name of international peace. IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch, of Spain, has championed the ancient tradition of the Olympic Truce. The truce calls upon the cessation of all hostilities and warfare during the period of the Olympic Games. Perhaps the most compelling moment of the 1994 Lillehammer Olympic Winter Games came at the Opening Ceremony when Samaranch asked attendees and viewers worldwide to observe a moment of remembrance for the Olympic city of Sarajevo and pleaded for a cessation of fighting in the war-torn former Yugoslavia.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

One hundred years ago, Pierre de Coubertin envisioned the Olympic Games as an international gathering of amateur athletes who would compete for the love of sport. While many athletes still do compete for the love of sport, the Olympic Games have evolved far beyond what Coubertin imagined. Today, the world of Olympic sport involves tremendous amounts of money and intimate association with commercial enterprise.

For most of the first century of the modern Games, the International Olympic Committee was a small operation of dedicated staff and volunteer members. Local organizing committees footed the bill for each Games. In the United States, the USOC often resorted to grassroots fundraising in order to field teams.

As the Olympic Games and mass media grew side by side, the Games began to attract commercial interest. The sale of television rights and corporate sponsorships helped offset the operational expenses of the IOC and local organizers. The nature of commercial sponsorship changed radically with the 1984 Los Angeles Games. The innovative and aggressive marketing of the Games, and the existence of suitable facilities that precluded the need for expensive construction, helped produce a surplus of $225 million (U.S.), a staggering sum by all previous standards. The Los Angeles organizers demonstrated that corporations were willing to spend huge sums of money to associate themselves with the Olympic Games.

In 1985, the IOC established TOP (The Olympic Program). Under this program, corporations pay tens of millions of dollars for status as official Olympic sponsors over a four-year period. Likewise, local organizing committees have attracted large corporate sponsorships and conducted aggressive marketing and merchandising campaigns of their own. Television revenues have continued to soar. In 1995, the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) agreed to pay an estimated $1.2 billion for the United States rights to broadcast the 2000 Sydney and 2002 Salt Lake City Games and added another $2.3 billion for the rights for the 2004, 2006 and 2008 Games. These developments have produced tremendous revenue for the Olympic Movement.

Such close association of the Olympic Games with commercial entities has brought criticism of the IOC. Some believe that the Olympic Movement has seriously compromised its principles and left itself far too susceptible to the wishes of commercial enterprises.

The increased wealth of the IOC, however, has allowed the Olympic Movement to expand both the nature and reach of its activities. Foremost among these activities is Olympic Solidarity, a program intended to spread the Olympic Movement throughout the world. Olympic Solidarity offers scholarships, sports education programs, and direct financial aid to National Olympic Committees, especially those of developing countries.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

VII.THE 1998 NAGANO OLYMPIC GAMES

The XVIII Olympic Winter Games were held in Nagano, Japan from February 7, 1998 through February 22, 1998. Approximately 3,000 athletes and officials from 83 countries took part in the Nagano Games. Roughly 200 United States athletes participated. Athletes competed for medals in seven sports with 68 events total.

The Games were held at several sites located throughout Nagano Prefecture. (In Japan, a prefecture is much like a state in the U.S.) Nagano City is located approximately 250 miles northwest of Tokyo. The city of 352,000 people sits at roughly the same latitude as San Francisco, California. In fact, it is the southernmost city ever to host the Winter Games. Nagano Prefecture is located in the Japan Alps and is often referred to as the "roof" of Japan. The region is quite mountainous with many 7,000-10,000-foot peaks. Nagano also is an important agricultural region producing an abundance of fruit, especially apples, cherries and pears. Nagano City is home to the Zenkoji, a buddhist temple that was first built in the 7th century.

Although Nagano City was the host city of the Games, the nearby towns of Shiga Kogen, Hakuba Village, Nozawa Onsen and Karuizawa Town also heldt many of the events.

The Nagano Games cost approximately $563 million (US). Close to 8,000 media personnel  covered the Games which were broadcast worldwide. In the United States, the CBS television network broadcast over 120 hours of the Games, including nearly 50 hours in prime time.

Links Nagano Olympic Winter Games information

CBS Sportsline Olympic Winter Games - CBS will broadcast the Games in the United States. On-line, CBS Sportsline offers a comprehensive Winter Games site complete with the latest news, results, schedules, rules, features, Winter games history and athlete profiles.

Back to Olympic Information Center

VIII. PAST OLYMPIC GAMES IN THE UNITED STATES

Cities of the United States have hosted Olympic winter or summer Games on seven occasions. In 1904, St. Louis, Missouri became the first American city to host the Olympic Games. Los Angeles, California and Lake Placid, New York each have welcomed the Games on two occasions. Los Angeles held the Summer Games in 1932 and 1984. Lake Placid was the site of the Olympic Winter Games in 1932 and 1980. Squaw Valley, California hosted the 1960 Winter Games. Atlanta, Georgia was the site of the 1996 Olympic Games. The United States will welcome its eighth winter or summer Games when 2002 Olympic Winter Games are held in Salt Lake City, Utah.

To see and learn more about these Games, just select one of the following links.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

IX. TOMORROW'S OLYMPIC GAMES

Planning is always under way for future Olympic Games. The 2000 Summer Games will be held in Sydney, Australia. Salt Lake City, Utah will host the 2002 Olympic Winter Games. In September 1997, Athens, Greece was selected to hold the 2004 Olympic Games. Even though the most of these Games are several years away, planning and work for the Games has already begun. Click below to visit the websites of tomorrow's Olympic Games.

• 2000 Sydney Games
• 2002 Salt Lake City Games
• 2004 Athens Games

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

X. OLYMPIC GAMES BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following is a short annotated list of books covering Olympic Games history. The list is intended for younger readers from elementary through high school age. We have, however, included works appropriate for teachers and older readers.

Lee Benson, United States Olympic Committee, Athens to Atlanta: 100 Years of Glory (Salt Lake City: Commemorative Publications, 1993). A Games by Games look at the history of the Modern Olympic Games. Includes many historic photographs.

Lewis Carlson and John Fogarty, Tales of Gold (Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1987). Features the individual stories of many American Olympic gold medalists.

Allen Guttmann, The Olympic Games (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1992). A serious overview of the history of the Olympic Games in light of world developments and IOC politics.

International Olympic Committee, et al, The Olympic Adventure (Paris: Dargaud Editeur, 1990-1991). A cartoon history of the Olympic Games in four volumes.

William Oscar Johnson, Sports Illustrated, The Olympics: A History of the Games (Birmingham, AL: Oxmoor House, 1992). A pictorial survey of the history of the Olympic Games, including many photographs.

Erich Kamper and Bill Mallon, The Golden Book of the Olympic Games (Milan: Vallardi & Associati, 1992). A complete statistical history of the Olympic Games.

Ken Kissimoto, The Olympic Movement: For the Next Century (Tokyo: Nihon Bunke Publishing Co., Ltd., 1990). A photograph and text essay on the spirit of the Olympic Movement.

E. Knill, The Olympics (Santa Barbara, CA: Bellerephon Books, 1983). A coloring book of the ancient Olympic Games. Has a good introductory history of the ancient Games for young readers.

Davida Kristy, Coubertin's Olympics (Minneapolis: Lerner Publications CO., 1995) An elegant history of the beginnings of the modern Olympic Games and the man who resurrected them.

Stephen Malley, The Kid's Guide to the 1992 Summer Olympics (Boston: Little, Brown,.1992) A good introduction for young readers to the various sports of the Olympic Games.

Stephen Malley, The Kid's Guide to the 1992 Olympic Winter Games (New York: Bantam Publishers, 1994). See above.

United States Olympic Committee, Chamonix to Lillehammer: the glory of the Olympic Winter Games (Salt Lake City: Commemorative Publications, 1994) Like Athens to Atlanta, this is a Games by Games look at the Olympic Winter Games.

David Wallechinsky, The Complete Book of the Olympic Games (Boston: Little, Brown, 1992). A statistical and anecdotal history of the Olympic Games. Brings you more than just places and times.

David Wallechinsky, The Complete Book of the Olympic Winter Games (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993). See above.

Back to Table of Contents

Back to Olympic Information Center

Copyright: Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles, January, 1996; November, 1997; February, 1999.

The images used in AN OLYMPIC PRIMER are the copyrighted property of the Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles, the International Olympic Committee, the United States Olympic Committee, the Atlanta Committee for the Olympic Games, the Organizing Committee for the XVIII Olympic Winter Games, Nagano 1998, the Sydney Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games and the Salt Lake City Olympic Organizing Committee. Copyrighted images, not belonging to to the Amateur Athletic Foundation, are used here under the fair use provision of the Copyright Act.

Individuals may reproduce a single copy of the text for educational purposes only. Any reproduction should cite the Amateur Athletic Foundation as publisher and copyright owner. The sale or commercial use of this work, or any portion thereof, in any format, is prohibited.

For more information on the Olympic Primer, contact the AAF library at library@aafla.org.

Copyright, 1997; 1999 Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles. All rights reserved.